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摘要：Help options, or in-built application resources designed to provide assistance, have long been an integral component of computer-based second language (L2) listening materials. Despite their potential to promote comprehension and efficiency, research on the role of help options has lagged. Previous research has found that learners do not often make use of help options. With a focus on the interventions listeners may deem relevant for comprehension and task completion, the aim of this qualitative study is to examine the interactions of language learners as they use, or do not use, these potentially assistive resources. Data were gathered from 15 adult learners of English who worked with a set of Longman English Interactive(copyright) (2008) listening exercises over three one-hour sessions. Within two studies, each participant was interviewed on three and six different occasions. Through our cyclical analysis of the data, five themes emerged: Relevance, Challenge, Familiarity, Recovery and Compatibility. We define and discuss each theme, and we conclude the article with suggestions for further research. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This study explores the differential effects of medium of delivery of aural input during listening tasks on learners noticing and type of comprehension (top-down and bottom-up) of Spanish object pronouns during focus on form listening tasks. Twenty-two college students enrolled in second year Spanish in a technology-enhanced classroom participated in the study. Two types of medium of delivery of input were compared: mobile assisted language learning (MALL), which is learner manipulated, and instructor manipulated language learning (IMLL). A quasi-experimental design was used -- treatment and immediate tests -- in order to measure participants' reported noticing and type of comprehension. Noticing was operationalized using think-aloud protocols, and measured on the post-test exposure comprehension assessment tasks. The findings of the study, interpreted within the attentional SLA framework, indicate that learners in the MALL group demonstrated significantly higher levels of reported noticing, bottom-up comprehension, and top-down overall comprehension than learners in the IMLL group. Directions for future research as well as pedagogical implications of the use of mobile technology and task-based listening activities are offered. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This review summarizes evidence for the effectiveness of technology use in foreign language (FL) learning and teaching, with a focus on empirical studies that compare the use of newer technologies with more traditional methods or materials. The review of over 350 studies (including classroom-based technologies, individual study tools, network-based social computing, and mobile and portable devices) revealed that, in spite of an abundance of publications available on the topic of technology use in FL learning and teaching, evidence of efficacy is limited. However, strong support for the claim that technology made a measurable impact in FL learning came from studies on computer-assisted pronunciation training, in particular, automatic speech recognition (ASR). These studies demonstrated that ASR can facilitate the improvement of pronunciation and can provide feedback effectively. Additional studies provided strong support for the use of chat in FL learning. These studies showed that, with chat, both the amount of learners' language production and its complexity significantly increased. The literature revealed moderate support for claims that technology enhanced learners' output and interaction, affect and motivation, feedback, and metalinguistic knowledge. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This article reviews the literature on the relatively new field of materials development for language learning and teaching. It reports the origins and development of the field and then reviews the literature on the evaluation, adaptation, production and exploitation of learning materials. It also reviews the literature, first, on a number of controversial issues in the field, next, on electronic delivery of materials and, third, on research in materials development. It identifies gaps in the literature and makes proposals for future progress in materials development and in the research within the field. Much of the literature focuses on materials for learning English but the same principles apply to materials for learning any L2, as has been acknowledged by some of the authors whose publications focus on materials for learning other languages. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This article reports on a study which took place in the context of the design and development of an online dictionary prototype for learners of French. Aspects of the 'usability', i.e. the quality of the 'learner-task-dictionary interaction' of the prototype were tested. Micro-tasks were designed to focus on learners' productive knowledge of French collocations. Learners (n = 6) completed the tasks individually, with access to the dictionary prototype. The computer sessions were screen-captured. The product (the language input provided by the learners) and the process (the learners' behavior) of the interaction were analyzed based on a set of defined effectiveness and efficiency parameters. The results provide an insight into the learners' dictionary search and look-up strategies highlight areas of the prototype's interface that deserve further design attention and consolidate the methodology used to test the usability of the prototype. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Teaching Chinese as a foreign language (TCFL) is increasingly becoming a mainstream profession and an independent academic discipline. However, there is little research in CALL targeting the Chinese language to date. This research attempts to show how a CALL system can be constructed following the unique properties of the Chinese language so it can benefit the learner maximally. First, we analyze student journals to identify problematic areas for British students learning Chinese as a foreign language, which seem to spread across levels of phonology, morphology, orthography, and vocabulary in an inextricable fashion. To address this issue, we designed a hierarchical network model linking levels of sound, syllables, characters, words, and phrases together in the form of nodes and connections. Current implementation of the model is a CALL system nicknamed Linkit, which can work alongside a textbook or a corpus, offering interconnected elements of the Chinese language such as the syllable, the character, the word, and the phrase on the same screen. The purpose of the design is for students to view a Chinese character not just as a character, but to see how it relates to other homophonic characters by appreciating the underlying phonological similarities and how the character can develop into a word or a phrase. We suggest that the emphasis on this type of continuity is a key factor in designing Chinese-specific CALL programs. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This article reports on the design and use of a profiler for lexical sophistication (i.e., use of advanced vocabulary), which was created to assess the lexical richness of intermediate and advanced Swedish second language (L2) learners' French and Italian. It discusses how teachers' judgments (TJs) of word difficulty can contribute to the methodology for lexical profiling and compares two methods, one purely frequency based and one modified on the basis of TJs of word difficulty. It has been suggested elsewhere that factors other than frequency play an important role in vocabulary acquisition. Here it is argued that cognates and thematic vocabulary related to teaching materials, although infrequent in target language (TL) corpora, should not necessarily be considered advanced and that analyses of learners' lexical sophistication would benefit from integrating these aspects. In this study, the frequency-based method normally used in lexical profiling was modified by recategorizing some low-frequency words considered easy by many teachers. On the basis of the TJs, a basic vocabulary, which consisted mainly of high-frequency words but also of cognates and thematic words, was defined, which was based on the fact that teachers judged certain low-frequency cognates and thematic words as relatively easy. Using the modified method, learners' lexical profiles were found to be more homogeneous within groups of learners at specific proficiency levels. The superiority of the new method over the purely frequency-based one was shown when comparing effect sizes. It is argued that this method gives a more correct picture of advanced L2 lexical profiles. Adapted from the source document

摘要：This article reviews the literature of multimedia glosses in computer assisted language learning (CALL) and their effects on L2 vocabulary acquisition during the past seventeen years. Several studies have touched on this area to examine the potential of multimedia in a CALL environment in aiding L2 vocabulary acquisition. In this review, the researchers investigate the studies that deal with different modes of multimedia annotations in a CALL environment. This article reviews the empirical studies of multimedia glosses in reading as well as in listening comprehension activities and discusses the factors under which these studies have been conducted and their impact on L2 vocabulary acquisition. The study aims to understand how multimedia glosses have been used in the past to support second language vocabulary acquisition and also to explore any evidence regarding how multimedia glosses in a CALL environment can enhance the acquisition of L2 vocabulary. Only empirical studies (18 studies published in international refereed journals and conference) have been reviewed exclusively. The article discusses the findings of the reviewed studies and recommends future research. Adapted from the source document

摘要：The European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML) ongoing Assessment of Young Learner Literacy, linked to the CEFR (AYLLIT) project is briefly discussed. Launched in 2008, the AYLLIT project aims to produce material that teachers can use in establishing the reading and writing level of young learners between nine and thirteen years, ultimately linking the material to the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). Adapted from the source document

摘要：Portable audio-video and computing devices have long been a subject of interest for those interesting in language learning, and the smartphones and tablet computers of today feature enhanced capabilities that have dramatically increased the interest level in mobile learning, including among language educators. Godwin-Jones provides an overview of the potential of many of the apps (applications) available on these devices for use in language instruction and learning. Adapted from the source document

摘要：There has been increasing interest in the possible applications of corpora to both linguistic research and pedagogy. This study takes a corpus-based, genre-analytic approach to discipline-specific materials development. Combining corpus analysis with genre analysis makes it possible to develop teaching materials that are not only authentic but also research-supported. An RA corpus consisting of 60 research articles from three major journals of computer science was constructed. A word frequency list derived from the corpus was analyzed to develop a vocabulary profile for the genre. Move analysis was also conducted based on a self-developed coding scheme of rhetorical moves in the target genre. The move codes were tagged in the corpus texts so that individual moves and move patterns could be retrieved for the purpose of developing research-based online teaching materials for graduate students of computer science. Numerous examples of specialized vocabulary, grammatical usage, and move structures that showcase and characterize academic computer science discourse were used in not only lessons but also learning tasks, discussion topics, and online writing models. The paper ends with a discussion of the usefulness and effectiveness of the online RA writing materials, based on student feedback and assessments. We combine corpus-based with genre-analytic approach to develop research-based online courseware for graduate students of computer science. We build a corpus of 60 research articles. We analyze word frequency and rhetorical moves in each section from the corpus. The online courseware includes examples of specialized vocabulary, grammatical usages, move structures, and learning tasks. The usefulness and effectiveness of the online courseware are evaluated by student feedback and assessments. [Copyright The American University; published by Elsevier Ltd.]

摘要：Corpus linguistics is a young specialization, but its usefulness in teaching and learning has received growing attention and recognition. In particular, corpus data has been identified as a resource providing "descriptive insights into how people use language and as a tool to enable students and instructors to analyse both how people use different language forms at various levels of formality and how language fulfills multiple speech functions across contexts." Adapted from the source document

摘要：In this article, we set out to assess QuADEM (Quality Assessment of Digital Educational Material), one of the latest methods for evaluating online language learning courseware. What is special about QuADEM is that the evaluation is based on observing the actual usage of the online courseware and that, from a checklist of 12 different components, the evaluator is free to pick and choose one or more. In particular, we focus on the QuADEM evaluation of a module of the digital environment Deutsch-Uni Online (DUO) that aims at preparing B1/B2 students for a study semester in Germany. DUO is meant for self-study supported by an online tutor. For our assessment, we observed two respondents during their activities in the online learning module, using think-aloud protocol, video registration, and keystroke logging, and we conducted semistructured postintervention interviews with them. Zooming in on usability, we found that this QuADEM component lacks assessment criteria regarding feedback and task design, both of which turned out to play an important motivational role in our assessment. While both could be added to the QuADEM usability dimension under the denomination "didactic usability," we suggest that it might be worth reconsidering QuADEM's pick-and-choose approach. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Much of the research into language learners' use of corpus resources has been conducted by means of indirect observation methodologies, like questionnaires or self-reports. While this type of study provides an excellent opportunity to reflect on the benefits and limitations of using corpora to teach and learn language, the use of indirect observation methodologies may confine the scope of research to learners' opinions about the benefits of using corpora for language learning and their self-perceived difficulties in consulting them. This article proposes and discusses the use of logs to research learners' actual use of corpus-based resources, analyzing the number of events or actions performed by each individual, the total number of different web services used, the number of activities completed, the number of searches performed on the British National Corpus (BNC) and, last, the number of words or wildcards per BNC search. Our research used these parameters to investigate whether learner interaction with corpus-based resources differed under different corpus consultation conditions: guided versus non-guided consultation. Our findings show that the individuals in the two research conditions behaved differently in two of the parameters analyzed: the number of different web services used during the completion of the tasks and the number of BNC searches. Our results corroborate empirically the suggestions found in the literature that skills and guidance are necessary when teachers take a corpus to the classroom. Similarly, we offer evidence that user tracking is essential to claim research and results validity. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Over the past few decades, corpora have not only revolutionized linguistic research but have also had an impact on second language learning and teaching. In the field of applied linguistics, more and more researchers and practitioners treasure what corpus linguistics has to offer to language pedagogy. Still, corpora and corpus tools have yet to be widely implemented in pedagogical contexts. The aim of this article is to provide an overview of pedagogical corpus applications and to review recent publications in the area of corpus linguistics and language teaching. It covers indirect corpus applications, such as in syllabus or materials design, as well as direct applications of corpora in the second language classroom. The article aims to illustrate how both general and specialized language corpora can be used in these applications and discusses directions for future research in applied corpus linguistics. Adapted from the source document

摘要：Texts are routinely simplified to make them more comprehensible for second language learners. However, the effects of simplification upon the linguistic features of texts remain largely unexplored. Here we examine the effects of one type of text simplification: intuitive text simplification. We use the computational tool, Coh-Metrix, to examine linguistic differences between proficiency levels of a corpus of 300 news texts that had been simplified to three levels of simplification (beginner, intermediate, advanced). The main analysis reveals significant differences between levels for a wide range of linguistic features, particularly between beginner and advanced levels. The results show that lower level texts are generally less lexically and syntactically sophisticated than higher-level texts. The analysis also reveals that lower level texts contain more cohesive features than higher-level texts. The analysis also provides strong evidence that these linguistic features can be used to classify levels of simplified reading texts. Overall, the findings support the notion that intuitively simplified texts at the beginning level contain more linguistic features related to comprehensible input than intuitively simplified texts at the advanced level. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications Ltd., copyright holder.]

摘要：We investigated how long-term retention of new words was affected by task type, number of word occurrences in the teaching materials and the combination of the two factors. The tasks were: reading a text with occasional Focus on Form when learners used dictionaries (T+F), or reading a text with Focus on Forms, i.e. word focused exercises (T+Fs). The words occurred 2-3, 4-5, and 6-7 times. Consequently, there were six conditions that reflected the 2 * 3 'task * occurrence' combinations. Learners were exposed to 60 target words, 10 words in each condition during a 13-week course of study, and were subsequently tested on them by two unannounced tests: passive recall and passive recognition. An increase in word occurrence was found to have an effect on retention in T+Fs only. Starting with 4 occurrences, T+Fs fared better than T+F. Task type effect was superior to the effect of word occurrence in recall only (2 word exercises fared better than 6-7 occurrences in text). The value of word-focused practice was also confirmed by learners' responses to an introspective questionnaire. [Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications Ltd., copyright holder.]

摘要：This article focuses on the proficiency level of texts in Computer Learner Corpora (CLCs). A claim is made that proficiency levels are often poorly defined in CLC design, and that the methods used for level assignment of corpus texts are not always adequate. Proficiency level can therefore, best be described as a fuzzy variable in CLCs, representing a potential source of error in CLC-based research. The article starts with a review of some of the most commonly used methods of proficiency-level assignment of texts in CLCs and a discussion of strengths and weaknesses of the different methods. A pioneer project to link a learner corpus of Norwegian (ASK) to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) is presented to illustrate that a reliable assignment of corpus texts is viable by applying insights and practice from the professional field of language testing and assessment. Finally, some advantages of a learner corpus reliably linked to the CEFR are discussed in relation to SLA research, to language test development, and to a validation of the CEFR-level descriptions. Adapted from the source document